WRITING A REPORT
Reports in Science are similar to those of other
disciplines except for the citations and the Literature Cited. All
papers should have 2.54 cm (1") margins on the top, bottom, and
sides. Page numbers should be at the bottom center, or top right, and
start on the second page of text. The papers should be written in a
clear, unambiguous style, and be in the 3rd person throughout.
There should be a Cover Page with the title,
author, and date centered just above the middle of the page. The class
name, school name, and professor's name are centered just above the
bottom margin.
CITATIONS: Citations are used to indicate the
original source of information. When you paraphrase someone elses ideas
you must cite the source of the idea. Quotations have to
be cited. It is not necessary to cite every sentence, and if an entire
paragraph came from one source it need be cited only once in the
paragraph, although a long paragraph may need a citation at the
beginning and the end for clarity.
Only the author and year are cited in the body of the
paper. If shorter than a paragraph, a reference may be paraphrased and
no quotation marks are used. The expression "et al." is
used when there are more than two authors. If more than one paper by an
author are cited, they are listed in chronological, then alphabetical
order if published in the same year, as below. If two papers have the
exact same citation (same author(s) and year), they are lettered, 1982a,
1982b, etc., as are Anderson et al. below. Quotations have to be
cited. Quotations of more than 4 lines must be indented and single
spaced, with no quotation marks, and cited. The citation in
the body of the paper may be as follows:
It was concluded that the Ph of sandstone glades
was highly influenced by the substrate of the surrounding elevated
community (Jeffries 1985).
Several authors have reported a respiratory burst
in poikilohydric cryptogams (AIF 1984, Link et al. 1984,
Jeffries 1989). Jeffries and Klopatek (1987) concluded that
grazing by cattle rapidly diminished the cover of cryptogamic crusts
in blackbrush communities.
The recovery of respiration of cyanobacteria crusts
"was longer than that of most other organisms" (Jeffries
1995).
The Literature Cited or Reference, [not
Bibliography] section is an alphabetical listing of articles that were
actually cited in the body of the paper. Citations are listed by the
first author's last name. Single author papers with the same last name
are listed before multiple author papers of that name. Multiple author
papers are alphabetized by the 1st, then 2nd, then 3rd, etc. author's
last names. If an author has more than one paper cited, they should be
listed in chronological order with the oldest paper first. An
abbreviated example would be:
Smith, J. 1991.
Smith, J. 1993.
Smith, J. and M. Jones. 1992.
Smith, J. and P. Thomas. 1991.
Smith, J., T. C. Adams, and D. K. Moss. 1995a.
Smith, J., T. C. Adams, and P. Thomas. 1995b.
Notes:
1) The two listings above are lettered "a"
and "b" even though they have slightly different authors
because the citations (Smith et al. 1995) are otherwise
identical. They would be cited as Smith et al. 1995a and Smith et
al. 1995b.
2) Journal articles are listed as author(s), year,
title, journal name, and then volume number:pages. A period separates
each part. The title is written like a sentence with only the first word
and proper nouns capitalized. If a journal has no volume number, then
the date of publication may be used, as in Maliszewsky (1995) below.
3) Internet articles are listed like journal articles
using the web owner as the journal name and the web address as the
volume:pages. It is important to actually find the web owner [try
hitting the "home" button] and not just listing the
abbreviated web address. Articles that are reprinted on the internet
(i.e. Lexis-Nexis) should be cited by the original publication title,
volume number, etc., and not by the web address. [See Jeffries
1997 below].
4) Books (and most pamphlets) are listed as author(s),
year, title, publisher and place of publication (city and state). The
title is capitalized.
5) No underlines or quotation marks are used in the
literature cited section for titles. In the body of the paper a book
title should be underlined, and a journal title placed in quotation
marks.
6) Scientific names must be underlined or italicized.
The first time used in a paper a scientific name should be written out
in full (i.e. Quercas alba L.) [L. is the author and should be
included], and then can subsequently be abbreviated as Q. alba.
7) If a book or article has no author, the editor may
be used as the author with (ed.) after their name. If there is no author
or editor, then the publisher may be used as the author (i.e. AIF 1981).
Anonymous may be used if no other identification is possible.
8) A book that is a compilation of articles by
various authors will be listed by author(s), date, title of
article/chapter (written like a sentence), pages, "IN:"
editor, book title (capitalized), publisher and place of publication, as
in Link et al. below.
9) Books or articles published by an organization
(i.e. United States Forest Service) may be cited by the abbreviation of
the name if the abbreviation is commonly used for that organization. The
abbreviation must be given in the literature cited section in
parentheses. The book below would be cited as (USFS 1937).
LITERATURE CITED (examples)
Anderson, D. C., K. T. Harper, and R. C. Holmgren.
1982a. Factors influencing development of cryptogamic soil crusts in
Utah deserts. J. Range Manage. 35:180-185.
Anderson, D. C., K. T. Harper, and S. R. Rushforth.
1982b. Recovery of cryptogamic soil crusts from grazing on Utah winter
ranges. J. Range Manage. 35:355-359.
Atomic Industrial Forum (AIF). 1984. Uranium: The
Facts. Atomic Industrial Forum, Washington, DC.
Bard, Y. 1974. Nonlinear Parameter Estimation.
Academic Press, NY.
Jeffries, D. L. 1987. Vegetation analysis of
sandstone glades in Devil's Den State Park, Arkansas. Castanea. 52:9-15.
Jeffries, D. L. 1997. The history of H.E.L.P.
University of the Ozarks. www.ozarks.edu/~HELP/history.html
Jeffries, D. L. and J. M. Klopatek. 1987. Effects of
grazing on vegetation of the blackbrush association. J. Range Manage.
40:390-392.
Link, S. O., M. F. Driscoll, and T. H. Nash III.
1984. CO2 exchange in lichens: Towards a mechanistic model. p. 77-91.
IN: Brown, D. H. (ed). Lichen Physiology and Cell Biology. Plenum Press,
NY.
Maliszewsky, S. 1995. Are term papers cruel and
unusual punishment? Time. June 6:12-15.
Mish, F.C. (ed). 1976. Webster's New Collegiate
Dictionary. G. & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, MA.
National Institutes of Health (NIH). 1997. The risk
of breast cancer. National Institutes of Health. www.nih.org/~health/
breastcancer.html
USDA Forest Service (USFS). 1937. Range Plant
Handbook. U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
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[sample journal review paper]
WARM AND FUZZY
Nessy C. Knight
October 3, 2000
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(New Page)
University of the Ozarks
Dr. Sean Coleman
Biology Concepts
All mammals have hair. Some of us have a lot, and
some do not. Hair is one of the many things cats have in common with
humans, mice, elephants, and bats. Having it distinguishes us from other
animals such as birds and reptiles. One reason mammals have hair or fur
is that it may help regulate body temperature by insulating us from heat
or cold.
If fur is for insulation against cold, then mammals
that live in cold habitats should have thicker, better insulating furs (Scholander
et al. 1950). Scholander and his colleagues collected furs from
many different mammals whose natural habitats were either the arctic or
the tropics. They then measured how fast heat moved through these furs.
Heat moved through the furs from the tropical mammals much more easily
and quickly than through those from arctic mammals. Polar bear fur was
found to be better insulation than black bear fur, and snowshoe hare fur
was better than jack-rabbit fur. Scholander and his colleagues (1950)
concluded that mammals with better fur insulation probably survived more
arctic winters, and so reproduced more often in arctic habitats than
those with poor insulation.
On the other hand, having good insulation against
cold is not as important in the tropics. According to Hammel (1976), the
first mammals appeared during the Mesozoic era when it was very hot
everywhere in the daytime. If the first mammals had hair, then it was
not to protect them from cold winters. Hair on these mammals would have
enhanced their abilities to detect light touch, as it does on the back
of the human hand. It may have been important for insulation, because
insulation works both ways. Fur insulation on the original mammals may
have served "to minimize the absorption of solar radiation
during...the day" (Hammel 1976). Today, camels that live in the
hottest deserts of the world have very thick fur on their backs for this
purpose (Hill and Wyse 1989).
Humans probably evolved in the tropics, which might
explain why their "fur" is not as good for insulation as a
polar bear's, but it does not explain why they are so hairless. Could
arctic and desert humans not benefit from fur insulation in the same
ways that polar bears and camels do? Maybe they have evolved unique ways
of keeping warm and cool. Maybe descendants of arctic and desert humans
will some day be warm and fuzzy too.
Literature Cited
Hammel, H. T. 1976. On the origin of endothermy in
mammals. Israel J. Medical Science. 12:905-915.
Hill, R. and G. Wyse. 1989. Animal Physiology. Harper
and Row, NY.
Scholander, P., V. Walter, R. Hock, and L. Irving.
1950. Body insulation of some arctic and tropical mammals and birds.
Biology Bulletin. 99:225-236.
This material is used with the permission of Dr. Doug
Jeffries.